Example: The J language

The J language is an array programming language influenced by APL. In J, operations on individual numbers (2 * 3) can just as easily be applied to entire lists of numbers (2 * 3 4 5, returning 6 8 10).

Operators in J are referred to as verbs. Verbs are either monadic (taking a single argument, such as *: 3, "3 squared") or dyadic (taking two arguments, one on either side, such as 5 - 4, "5 minus 4").

Here's an example of a J program:

'A string'

*: 1 2 3 4

matrix =: 2 3 $ 5 + 2 3 4 5 6 7
10 * matrix

1 + 10 20 30
1 2 3 + 10

residues =: 2 | 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
residues

Using J's interpreter to run the above program yields the following on standard out:

A string

1 4 9 16

 70  80  90
100 110 120

11 21 31
11 12 13

0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

In this section we'll write a grammar for a subset of J. We'll then walk through a parser that builds an AST by iterating over the rules that pest gives us. You can find the full source code within this book's repository.

The grammar

We'll build up a grammar section by section, starting with the program rule:

program = _{ SOI ~ "\n"* ~ (stmt ~ "\n"+) * ~ stmt? ~ EOI }

Each J program contains statements delimited by one or more newlines. Notice the leading underscore, which tells pest to silence the program rule — we don't want program to appear as a token in the parse stream, we want the underlying statements instead.

A statement is simply an expression, and since there's only one such possibility, we also silence this stmt rule as well, and thus our parser will receive an iterator of underlying exprs:

stmt = _{ expr }

An expression can be an assignment to a variable identifier, a monadic expression, a dyadic expression, a single string, or an array of terms:

expr = {
      assgmtExpr
    | monadicExpr
    | dyadicExpr
    | string
    | terms
}

A monadic expression consists of a verb with its sole operand on the right; a dyadic expression has operands on either side of the verb. Assignment expressions associate identifiers with expressions.

In J, there is no operator precedence — evaluation is right-associative (proceeding from right to left), with parenthesized expressions evaluated first.

monadicExpr = { verb ~ expr }

dyadicExpr = { (monadicExpr | terms) ~ verb ~ expr }

assgmtExpr = { ident ~ "=:" ~ expr }

A list of terms should contain at least one decimal, integer, identifier, or parenthesized expression; we care only about those underlying values, so we make the term rule silent with a leading underscore:

terms = { term+ }

term = _{ decimal | integer | ident | "(" ~ expr ~ ")" }

A few of J's verbs are defined in this grammar; J's full vocabulary is much more extensive.

verb = {
    ">:" | "*:" | "-"  | "%" | "#" | ">."
  | "+"  | "*"  | "<"  | "=" | "^" | "|"
  | ">"  | "$"
}

Now we can get into lexing rules. Numbers in J are represented as usual, with the exception that negatives are represented using a leading _ underscore (because - is a verb that performs negation as a monad and subtraction as a dyad). Identifiers in J must start with a letter, but can contain numbers thereafter. Strings are surrounded by single quotes; quotes themselves can be embedded by escaping them with an additional quote.

Notice how we use pest's @ modifier to make each of these rules atomic, meaning implicit whitespace is forbidden, and that interior rules (i.e., ASCII_ALPHA in ident) become silent — when our parser receives any of these tokens, they will be terminal:

integer = @{ "_"? ~ ASCII_DIGIT+ }

decimal = @{ "_"? ~ ASCII_DIGIT+ ~ "." ~ ASCII_DIGIT* }

ident = @{ ASCII_ALPHA ~ (ASCII_ALPHANUMERIC | "_")* }

string = @{ "'" ~ ( "''" | (!"'" ~ ANY) )* ~ "'" }

Whitespace in J consists solely of spaces and tabs. Newlines are significant because they delimit statements, so they are excluded from this rule:

WHITESPACE = _{ " " | "\t" }

Finally, we must handle comments. Comments in J start with NB. and continue to the end of the line on which they are found. Critically, we must not consume the newline at the end of the comment line; this is needed to separate any statement that might precede the comment from the statement on the succeeding line.

COMMENT = _{ "NB." ~ (!"\n" ~ ANY)* }

Parsing and AST generation

This section will walk through a parser that uses the grammar above. Library includes and self-explanatory code are omitted here; you can find the parser in its entirety within this book's repository.

First we'll enumerate the verbs defined in our grammar, distinguishing between monadic and dyadic verbs. These enumerations will be be used as labels in our AST:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
pub enum MonadicVerb {
    Increment,
    Square,
    Negate,
    Reciprocal,
    Tally,
    Ceiling,
    ShapeOf,
}

pub enum DyadicVerb {
    Plus,
    Times,
    LessThan,
    LargerThan,
    Equal,
    Minus,
    Divide,
    Power,
    Residue,
    Copy,
    LargerOf,
    LargerOrEqual,
    Shape,
}
}

Then we'll enumerate the various kinds of AST nodes:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
pub enum AstNode {
    Print(Box<AstNode>),
    Integer(i32),
    DoublePrecisionFloat(f64),
    MonadicOp {
        verb: MonadicVerb,
        expr: Box<AstNode>,
    },
    DyadicOp {
        verb: DyadicVerb,
        lhs: Box<AstNode>,
        rhs: Box<AstNode>,
    },
    Terms(Vec<AstNode>),
    IsGlobal {
        ident: String,
        expr: Box<AstNode>,
    },
    Ident(String),
    Str(CString),
}
}

To parse top-level statements in a J program, we have the following parse function that accepts a J program in string form and passes it to pest for parsing. We get back a sequence of Pairs. As specified in the grammar, a statement can only consist of an expression, so the match below parses each of those top-level expressions and wraps them in a Print AST node in keeping with the J interpreter's REPL behavior:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
pub fn parse(source: &str) -> Result<Vec<AstNode>, Error<Rule>> {
    let mut ast = vec![];

    let pairs = JParser::parse(Rule::program, source)?;
    for pair in pairs {
        match pair.as_rule() {
            Rule::expr => {
                ast.push(Print(Box::new(build_ast_from_expr(pair))));
            }
            _ => {}
        }
    }

    Ok(ast)
}
}

AST nodes are built from expressions by walking the Pair iterator in lockstep with the expectations set out in our grammar file. Common behaviors are abstracted out into separate functions, such as parse_monadic_verb and parse_dyadic_verb, and Pairs representing expressions themselves are passed in recursive calls to build_ast_from_expr:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
fn build_ast_from_expr(pair: pest::iterators::Pair<Rule>) -> AstNode {
    match pair.as_rule() {
        Rule::expr => build_ast_from_expr(pair.into_inner().next().unwrap()),
        Rule::monadicExpr => {
            let mut pair = pair.into_inner();
            let verb = pair.next().unwrap();
            let expr = pair.next().unwrap();
            let expr = build_ast_from_expr(expr);
            parse_monadic_verb(verb, expr)
        }
        // ... other cases elided here ...
    }
}
}

Dyadic verbs are mapped from their string representations to AST nodes in a straightforward way:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
fn parse_dyadic_verb(pair: pest::iterators::Pair<Rule>, lhs: AstNode, rhs: AstNode) -> AstNode {
    AstNode::DyadicOp {
        lhs: Box::new(lhs),
        rhs: Box::new(rhs),
        verb: match pair.as_str() {
            "+" => DyadicVerb::Plus,
            "*" => DyadicVerb::Times,
            "-" => DyadicVerb::Minus,
            "<" => DyadicVerb::LessThan,
            "=" => DyadicVerb::Equal,
            ">" => DyadicVerb::LargerThan,
            "%" => DyadicVerb::Divide,
            "^" => DyadicVerb::Power,
            "|" => DyadicVerb::Residue,
            "#" => DyadicVerb::Copy,
            ">." => DyadicVerb::LargerOf,
            ">:" => DyadicVerb::LargerOrEqual,
            "$" => DyadicVerb::Shape,
            _ => panic!("Unexpected dyadic verb: {}", pair.as_str()),
        },
    }
}
}

As are monadic verbs:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
fn parse_monadic_verb(pair: pest::iterators::Pair<Rule>, expr: AstNode) -> AstNode {
    AstNode::MonadicOp {
        verb: match pair.as_str() {
            ">:" => MonadicVerb::Increment,
            "*:" => MonadicVerb::Square,
            "-" => MonadicVerb::Negate,
            "%" => MonadicVerb::Reciprocal,
            "#" => MonadicVerb::Tally,
            ">." => MonadicVerb::Ceiling,
            "$" => MonadicVerb::ShapeOf,
            _ => panic!("Unsupported monadic verb: {}", pair.as_str()),
        },
        expr: Box::new(expr),
    }
}
}

Finally, we define a function to process terms such as numbers and strings. Numbers require some manuevering to handle J's leading underscores representing negation, but other than that the process is typical:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
fn build_ast_from_term(pair: pest::iterators::Pair<Rule>) -> AstNode {
    match pair.as_rule() {
        Rule::integer => {
            let istr = pair.as_str();
            let (sign, istr) = match &istr[..1] {
                "_" => (-1, &istr[1..]),
                _ => (1, &istr[..]),
            };
            let integer: i32 = istr.parse().unwrap();
            AstNode::Integer(sign * integer)
        }
        Rule::decimal => {
            let dstr = pair.as_str();
            let (sign, dstr) = match &dstr[..1] {
                "_" => (-1.0, &dstr[1..]),
                _ => (1.0, &dstr[..]),
            };
            let mut flt: f64 = dstr.parse().unwrap();
            if flt != 0.0 {
                // Avoid negative zeroes; only multiply sign by nonzeroes.
                flt *= sign;
            }
            AstNode::DoublePrecisionFloat(flt)
        }
        Rule::expr => build_ast_from_expr(pair),
        Rule::ident => AstNode::Ident(String::from(pair.as_str())),
        unknown_term => panic!("Unexpected term: {:?}", unknown_term),
    }
}
}

Running the Parser

We can now define a main function to pass J programs to our pest-enabled parser:

fn main() {
    let unparsed_file = std::fs::read_to_string("example.ijs")
      .expect("cannot read ijs file");
    let astnode = parse(&unparsed_file).expect("unsuccessful parse");
    println!("{:?}", &astnode);
}

Using this code in example.ijs:

_2.5 ^ 3
*: 4.8
title =: 'Spinning at the Boundary'
*: _1 2 _3 4
1 2 3 + 10 20 30
1 + 10 20 30
1 2 3 + 10
2 | 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
another =: 'It''s Escaped'
3 | 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(2+1)*(2+2)
3 * 2 + 1
1 + 3 % 4
x =: 100
x - 1
y =: x - 1
y

We'll get the following abstract syntax tree on stdout when we run the parser:

$ cargo run
  [ ... ]
[Print(DyadicOp { verb: Power, lhs: DoublePrecisionFloat(-2.5),
    rhs: Integer(3) }),
Print(MonadicOp { verb: Square, expr: DoublePrecisionFloat(4.8) }),
Print(IsGlobal { ident: "title", expr: Str("Spinning at the Boundary") }),
Print(MonadicOp { verb: Square, expr: Terms([Integer(-1), Integer(2),
    Integer(-3), Integer(4)]) }),
Print(DyadicOp { verb: Plus, lhs: Terms([Integer(1), Integer(2), Integer(3)]),
    rhs: Terms([Integer(10), Integer(20), Integer(30)]) }),
Print(DyadicOp { verb: Plus, lhs: Integer(1), rhs: Terms([Integer(10),
    Integer(20), Integer(30)]) }),
Print(DyadicOp { verb: Plus, lhs: Terms([Integer(1), Integer(2), Integer(3)]),
    rhs: Integer(10) }),
Print(DyadicOp { verb: Residue, lhs: Integer(2),
    rhs: Terms([Integer(0), Integer(1), Integer(2), Integer(3), Integer(4),
    Integer(5), Integer(6), Integer(7)]) }),
Print(IsGlobal { ident: "another", expr: Str("It\'s Escaped") }),
Print(DyadicOp { verb: Residue, lhs: Integer(3), rhs: Terms([Integer(0),
    Integer(1), Integer(2), Integer(3), Integer(4), Integer(5),
    Integer(6), Integer(7)]) }),
Print(DyadicOp { verb: Times, lhs: DyadicOp { verb: Plus, lhs: Integer(2),
    rhs: Integer(1) }, rhs: DyadicOp { verb: Plus, lhs: Integer(2),
        rhs: Integer(2) } }),
Print(DyadicOp { verb: Times, lhs: Integer(3), rhs: DyadicOp { verb: Plus,
    lhs: Integer(2), rhs: Integer(1) } }),
Print(DyadicOp { verb: Plus, lhs: Integer(1), rhs: DyadicOp { verb: Divide,
    lhs: Integer(3), rhs: Integer(4) } }),
Print(IsGlobal { ident: "x", expr: Integer(100) }),
Print(DyadicOp { verb: Minus, lhs: Ident("x"), rhs: Integer(1) }),
Print(IsGlobal { ident: "y", expr: DyadicOp { verb: Minus, lhs: Ident("x"),
    rhs: Integer(1) } }),
Print(Ident("y"))]